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VIKAS KAPOOR
China’s territorial disputes have been a major part of its foreign policy in much of the 20th as well as 21st centuries. As soon as People republic of China (PRC) was established in 1949, China declared that its Land boundaries with almost all neighbouring countries were Ill-defined & needed to be “renegotiated & redefined” then began a long & daunting task of negotiations with 14 countries, out of which only 02 countries left so far in Dispute – India & Bhutan (Russia got settled in 1980). However, Its SEA boundaries with 09 countries are yet to be resolved. China has a land border of approximately 20,000 Kms and a coastline of about 18,000 Kms. China settled amicably with the majority of the countries except Russia, Vietnam & India, depending on what is at stake.
China & Russia share 14 Nations international border, highest among the world, with China land locked from 03 sides. It was taken over from the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). China’s PRC always maintain that Imperial countries (WEST) forcefully took territories of China during Qing dynasty through various treaties which they call it “Unequal Treaties” – Nanking Treaty 1842, Aigun & Tientsin Treaty 1858, Peking Convention 1860, Yili Treaty 1881, China- Portuguese treaty of Peking, Shimonoseki Treaty 1895, Convention for extension of Hong Kong territory 1898 , Boxer Protocol 1901 etc.
China & India are two ancient civilisations whose relations date back to several centuries. China & India share historical,cultural and social linkages spanning the various facets of life while a majority of Chinese owe their knowledge of Buddhism to India, ancient Indian trade hugely linked with China. Infact China was a major hub for both land & Sea – bound trade for Indians. In modern times, especially with the advent of the British to the Indian subcontinent, China & India lost direct contact with each other. It was only after India’s Independence & China’s Communists came to power in 1949, we started our diplomatic relationship in the 1950’s onwards. Our relations were laid down on Five principles of Panch – Sheel with the notable slogan “ Hindi – Chinni Bahi Bhai”. However, the cordiality, warmth & trust shown by India was not reciprocated by China & McMahon Line as Demarcated by British between India & China, negated by China as a result of British aggression against China & especially the Tibetan regime of China, & with Tibet,Aksai Chin & parts of POK in its possession, make the issue even more complicated. India’s after independence acquired a dispute with China on the east – the Mc – Mahon line & western side a more complex dimension was added on accession of J&K on October 26th, 1947. In 1950, Indian Govt brought into the notice of few Chinese maps showing Indian territory as theirs, on which Zhou Enlai assured our PM that these are old maps & needs to be revised after regime change in China. Our maps clearly show the Mc–Mohan line is the final boundary in the East. Despite assurances, China’s incursions to our Bara Boti,Damzan, Nilang Shipki pass, Lapthal,Sangcha Malla & Dichu valley. The boundary disputes erupted into open on August 28th,1959 when Nehru disclosed in Parliament that Chinese crossed over to the Indian side at Longju in Subansiri frontier division, at a place south of Mayyitun & opened fire. Subsequently Nehru & Zhou met in New Delhi from April 19th to 25th, 1960 to discuss differences related to border areas but finally of No avail.
Divergence over India – China boundary led to a brief but appalling war in October 1962 despite India submitted strong, valid & legally backed documents related to border territory, China took away Aksai Chin (38,000 Sq Kms) in Ladakh which shares its border with Pakistan to China thus pave way for National Highway 219 through it to connect to Xinjiang & also to circumvent Tibetan rebels & Khampas to use this territory for Guerrilla activities against the Chinese regime.
Major reasons led to China India war in 1962 enumerated as below :
- Forward Policy – By October 1961, China was trying to occupy all vacant areas on India China boundary & have built 07 roads inside India’s territory of Ladakh, several roads ,close to India’s border in Punjab, HP, UP, Six to Sikkim & Bhutan borders & 08 roads to NEFA borders & have established as many as seven new posts in Ladakh, 14 in central sector of Punjab, HP & UP, 12 across Sikkim and Chumbi valley & three across NEFA. Chinese efforts had been directed at seizing more Indian territory to create evidence against the 1960 claim. In Retaliation against Chinese incursions, and on the advice of Lt Gen BM Kaul, India also started deploying its troops with a massive Outpost against China which led to China’s reaction in a very harsh way.
2. Political asylum to Dalai Lama – Though India had given up all its extra – territorial rights on Tibet after signing the 1954 agreement on trade between Tibet region of China & India. Owing to China’s crackdown in Tibet in 1950s, Dalai Lama, along with 80,000 Tibetans fled to India in 1959, of late, a movie has also been made – “ Four rivers & Six ranges based on the book Flight at the Cuckoo’s behest – the life & times of Tibetan freedom fighter by Kunga Samten Dewatshang”.
Nehru did it on asylum given to KP singh a communist leader of Nepal to China in 1954 under International Protocol which Zhou Enlai admitted. While all reports regarding asylum to Dalai Lama are classified till now, although we have been stating on humanitarian basis, some say om behest of US, asylum was given in India.
3. Burgeoning India – United States friendship – Mao replied to a question by President of Mongolia, Zedenbal, asking reasons for war on India in 1962, Mao replied to “Teach India a lesson” as moving very close to the United states of America, and as threat to China.
4. India’ Influence – Nehru – Mao ideological rivalry played a role in the deteriorating China – India relations.He wanted to crush Nehru because of few reasons unpalatable to him, especially India getting Undue attention through International Community. Also ideological differences between two countries such as India Democratic socialism vs Mao’s Sectarian communism, Non alignment & Alignment, Democracy & Dictatorship, therefore China vying for the Afro- Asian world, perceived it as a serious obstacle to China’s ascendancy.
Nevertheless, as expected War had an adverse effect on China – India Relation, it in fact further escalated over years and led to deep – seated mistrust of China in the Indian psyche.
Both countries normalized their relations in 1976 when diplomat K R Narayan was appointed as India’s first ambassador to China since 1962. Nonetheless, 10 years later in 1986, Chinese & Indian patrols again began confronting each other in Sumdorong Chu Valley of Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh just east of Bhutan. Negotiations started with diplomatic visits of state heads like Rajiv Gandhi visit to china in 1988, Ata Vihari Bajpayee in 2003, Manmohan Singh in 2008 & 2013, Narinder Modi in 2015, Wen Jiabao to India in 2005 & 2010, Hu Jintao 2006, Li Keqiang 2013 & Xi Jinping in 2014 are few examples.
The Unresolved boundary dispute is still the biggest challenge to the relations between two countries. Fundamentally, the problem is two faceted : While China – India boundary is divided in three sectors – Western, Middle & Eastern sectors, however, disagreements are on western & eastern sectors. Out of the 4000 kms long China – India boundary, approximately 2000 kms of boundary is in the western sector that separates J&K from China’s Xinjiang province. India’s claim over Aksai Chin, illegally occupied by China during 1962 war, is a part of District Leh & also claim over Shaksgam valley (huge source of fresh water) was compromised by an agreement between China – Pakistan in 1963.
Non Resolution of the China- India boundary problem can largely be attributed to their symmetric capabilities to counter each other. Clearly, India’s rising military profile, its status as “first among equals”in South Asia ( to the extent of being called as Big brother in the Indian Subcontinent) and remarkable presence in Bay of Bengal & the Indian Ocean have been major factors in shaping the Chinese approach towards India. With India’s look East policy, rechristened as the act East policy under PM Narinder Modi’s administration, and its efforts to reach out to the Southeast Asian countries, both countries’ aspirations to establish economic dominance in the neighbourhood began to take centre – stage. Hence, India doesnot fit as a resource source for China or as an object of extractive resource diplomacy as in case of Myanmar and LAO PDR, Nor does India fall into the league of China’s satellite states such as North Korea that is dependent on China. While rhetorically, China has been supporting a multilateral dialogue, It has never really favoured the multilateral approach to disputes. For India, the lesson is very clear : Handle all boundary issues Bilaterally. This means resolving Western sector dispute with Pakistan and China separately, not involving either of them.
Exploring Options for India :
- India’s wish to resolve the boundary issue comprehensively by adopting a sector by sector approach which does not suit China but works to India’s advantage in the long run.
- Separate China India issue out of Pakistan – India territorial dispute
- China – India border is by and large peaceful despite being volatile & exception to skirmishes in Doklam, Galwan and Chusul etc. The fine balance of strengthened military capabilities and Infrastructure along the border, along with diplomatic finesse is the need of hour for India.
- INFRASTRUCTURE Development on LAC will keep China under Check & help India with immediate Reinforcement in case of any Misadventure by China — Over the past five years, the BRO has completed over 450 projects worth Rs.16,000 crore. With the inauguration of these 75 projects, BRO has completed a total of 111 infrastructure projects in 2024 itself at an overall cost of Rs 3,751 crore. This includes 36 projects worth Rs 1,508 crore, such as the state-of-the-art Sela Tunnel in Arunachal Pradesh, the longest twin lane tunnel in the world, inaugurated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in March 2024. In July 2024, PM Modi conducted the “first blast” of the Shinkhun La Tunnel on the Nimu-Padam-Darcha Road which, along with Atal Tunnel, will provide all-weather connectivity to Leh. Constructed at an altitude of 15,800 feet, it will be the highest tunnel in the world. 4.1 kms long, it is a twin –tube tunnel, with unidirectional traffic and cross passages at every 500 metres. It will reduce the travelling time by about 30 minutes, and will also serve as a vital link connecting Lahaul Valley in Himachal Pradesh with the Zanskar Valley in Ladakh. It will boost the security and economy of Ladakh and promote trade, tourism and development in general, bringing new opportunities and improving livelihoods of the local people. The Chisumle-Demchok Road constructed by BRO at an altitude of 19024 feet is the world’s highest motorable road over Umlingla, the world’s highest mountain pass connecting Chisumle to Demchok in Southern Ladakh, has been recognised by the Guinness Book of World Records.On 23 August 2024 Rajnath Singh laid the foundation stone for India’s highest airfield being constructed by the BRO at Mudh-Nyoma in Eastern Ladakh with a 2.743 kms runaway and at an altitude of 13,710 ft. This airfield will be developed for wide ranging strategic air assets at a cost of Rs 218 crores. Considering the capability differential vis-à-vis the adversary, China in this case, it is proposed to develop the existing advance landing ground at Nyoma to a full-fledged airbase capable of undertaking operations by wide bodied aircraft like C-17/IL 76 for large scale deployment of troops and their sustenance by air logistics operations, facilitate defensive and offensive operations by fighters and helicopters and operations by civil aircraft. The construction of this airfield will tremendously boost air infrastructure in Ladakh and augment the IAF capability along India’s northern borders. The runway of Mudh-Nyoma airfield has been completed in a record timeframe of just two working seasons and the entire project is expected to be completed by November 2025.The recently begun Arunachal Frontier Highway will provide inter valley connectivity in Arunachal Pradesh between Kameng, Subansiri, Siang, Lohit and Tirap valleys. Running parallel to the Line of Actual Control, it will provide induction routes and facilitate move and switching of resources for the Army, something which the Chinese are again already most miffed about.
- There is a need to formulate a concrete approach in dealing with the border issue at the political and ideological, military & socio-economic levels & shall also apply to disputes in the South China sea.
- Upgrading the bilateral relationship through the creation of more avenues of cooperation & more economic relations. During April-July 2025-26, India’s exports to China rose 19.97% to $5.75 billion, while imports increased 13.06% to $40.65 billion. In the 2024-25 fiscal year, India exported goods worth $14.25 billion to China, while imports reached $113.5 billion, according to PTI. China accounted for around 35% of India’s total trade imbalance, which stood at $283 billion last fiscal. The deficit was $85.1 billion in 2023-24. With more tangible stakes, China would be encouraged to settle boundary disputes.
- India Defence preparedness, Surveillance capabilities and swiftness in dealing with Potential threats from across the border. Recent show of Prowess during Operation “SINDOOR” further cemented our reputation.
- US – India souring of relations due to excessive tariffs imposed by the Trump administration, gave China an opportunity to leverage economics between two countries and showcasing its hegemony in the world by engaging Russia, India through the recent SCO summit at Tianjin.
Leaving the territorial dispute resolution for the next generation is intrinsic in China’s approach while India finds it more feasible to resolve the boundary dispute first. In essence, both countries should make sure that neither country’s approach hurts the other aspects of Bilateral relations.
(Author is Columnist & Agripreneur)
